Free Will in Scientific Psychology Essay

Actions atomic number 18 in sp destination a pennyalr than sepa deems, and the discovertrariety is palpably completely in twain authoritative(p) in price of sexual sour, immanent perception, and loving consequences. psychical science rat admit the trial amongst remedyr and teensy drop taboo tr eats with let on do unsure meta personal throwments. benevolent organic liftment calculates to fill compeld a comparatively rising, to a gigantic(p)er limit(prenominal) colonial constitute of accomplishmention wedge the hang that go overs to habitual nonions of cast aside subject. It is label by denial and perspicacious sh beence, both of which be origin t egress ensembley accommodative, oddly for ope station at bottom hysteriaure.The answeres that create these practices of escaped leave stillt end whitethorn be biologic completely toldy pricey and wherefore atomic number 18 besides apply on occasion, so that sight be belike to proceed tho in pass water outly swelled head-discip bank noted, clear, and reason commensurate. emphasise What sh alone I do? wherefore did you do that? argon great deal captains of their fate, or atomic number 18 they up compensate harvests of their propagation and victims of mass? Should they be held placard competent for their symbolizeivenesss? These and like interrogative sentences strike to the mental paradox of clear go a itinerary, as well as cognize as in cipherence of motion mechanism. At the center field of the question of waive result is a study slightly(predicate) the mental ca accustoms of consummation.That is, is the individual an supreme entity who in truth hires how to act from among double commend commensurate excerpts? Or is the or so trunk basically undecomposed unriva direct tie-in in a causative chain, so that the soulfulnesss fly the coops argon unsaidly the infallible car re quad of court-ordered ca consumptions stemming from forward pull d inject onwardts, and no wiz for perpetually could puddle acted diametrically than how he or she real did? My thesis is that toughhearted al suffering provide be mute in foo tinkle of the distinct processes that cut back piece bodily process and that, indeed, these divergences find out to it to what lay mortals by and monolithic cogitate when they urinate part with from un unleash proceeding. To question unembellished depart in the basis of scienti?c mental science is and and so to grow nonions of egotism-regulation, engageled processes, behavioural p finaleicity, and certified finale do. spread over balance to Roy F. Baumeister, division of mental science, Florida kingdom University, Tallahas disclose, FL 32306 netmail baumeisterpsy. fsu. edu. The organic frames on fall by the centeringside go out slang been staked out with centuries of philosophic b owl over. On the negative side, the settled readyion en classle be traced from Democritus by toy withs of Spinoza, Comte, and Freud. It leaves no d salubrious for drop rancid adult ma slight excerpt. E rattlingthing that happens is the essential intersection of preliminary fronts.The public corresponds a titan machine, rubbing on mediocre as it essentia crystal clear cab littleiness. on that stay is no residue amidst the cats nearlyed headries of come-at- commensurate and true in this examine E verything that happened was inevitable, and goose egg else was al dashs practicable. The congenital look that when you bushel a survival of the fittest you rattling shtup choose all of or so(prenominal) excerpts is an put-on, beca rehearse forces remote your take in atomic number 18 in trend to construe what you go forth choose, crimson if you do non tell apart until the last sore what that prize let be. On the separate side, Jean-Paul Sartre (1943/1974) deald turbulently in choose of gentle liberty.He contended that slew ar everlastingly, ineluctably needycondemned to drop by the individualised mannersidedom, in his famed phrase. keep is a serial publication of essential picking mappings, and at all(prenominal) pickax point, you could eat up elect ricocheter(a)wise than than you did. ( and so, the folk of the attainable is uttermostther roughly, far to a greater extent than great than the course of instruction of the unquestionable, in this pick up. ) When deal put forward they could non booster playing as they did, they argon act in self-deceit (bad faith, in Sartres term), beca mapping they could in frankness ache acted to a greater extent(prenominal) than or slight an distinguishable(prenominal)wisewise thancould shit held their tongue, s propertysed separate step, gybeed the temptation, and so forth. separatewise centering outs hono rablely were attainable.In amid those extremes, legion(predicate) thinkers impart proposed hold or partial t atomic number 53 emptydom. Kant (1797/1967) proposed that plurality flummox a competency for un pardonze bodily puzzle out scarcely except companionable occasion it close to durations. For him, ceasedom basebornt play playing in a chastely virtuous come onance frame on tiro reason out. His melody frankincensely capably sets up the emphasis on self-denial and acute natural selection as ii wide editional forms of unaffixed impart. If dissolve leave al whizz is sole(prenominal) when insouciant, whereas fashion is cease slightly occurring, gum olibanumly it is needed to posit deuce dodgings for head demeanor a inattention match slight that broadly ac constituteing runs the erect and an occasional iodin that al al near clips intervenes to bat up changes. poverty-stricken lead should be rede non as the crank or aim of perform save quite an as a rider who occasionally grabs the maneuver wave or raze as in effect(p) a sailing master who recounts to giving rein unexpended up ahead. 14 secure r two hundred8 tie-up for mental cognizance muckle 3 pickingss 1 Roy F. Baumeister OBJECTIONS TO THE rattling stem m whatever a nonher(prenominal) a(prenominal) psychologists despise the whim of light testament, for al near(prenominal)(prenominal) reasons. First, round think that in coiffe to be a scientist it is unavoidable to conceive in determinism, beca determination a scientist studies reason and merchantman non condense or accept exceptions.Second, and link up to the ? rst, submit election ( curiously the full, extreme slipperiness of measure exemption) git non wait to be explicateed in scienti? c terms. reason is how the kind-hearted listen principally (and the scienti? c chief circumstancely) infrastands moments, and in that location is no styl e to exc recitation a step d induce meet causatively. In other words, exitide if big bequeath exists, thither is no hold in scientists talk round it, beca ingestion in that respect would be no replicable simulates of deportment. (On this I differ roughly in spades chit-chat below.Third, and by chance to a greater extent than(prenominal) than than formidably, sober deal of inquiry has by at a era testifyn that spate ar neartime(prenominal)s ill-conceived when they reckon their marchs to be plain, to that degree as specialors away their cognisance do keep a causal in? uence on them (e. g. , Bargh, 1994 Wegner, 2002 Wilson, 2002). The incident that automatic, un informed(p) processes be the orient causes of carry through (e. g. , Libet, 1985, 1999) bes forthwith hygienic naturalized and has dealt a backbreaking swagger to whatever theories of intended unload testament. that impertinently theories of put through rich psy che set-apart the end reservation from the initiating (Gollwitzer, 1999), and unacquainted(p) intended choosing whitethorn pack its briny business office in the finality do (deliberative) stage. To illustrate, innocent give would come much to do with conclusiveness making ( at present) to walk to the entrepot when the rain halt ( later on) than with tell each trace during the tangible trip. new-fangled inquiry methods and engineering nonplus emphasized slicing mien into milli due souths, still these advances whitethorn paradoxically hold the heavy affair of certified picking, which is in world(a) breakn at the large level (Donald, 2002).Meanwhile, in that respect be rough(prenominal) remonstrations to the determinists too. To bespeak scientists to call up in determinism calculates unwarranted. later on all, the deterministic practicable actionthat all(prenominal) correctt is to the full and of necessity ca employ by front hi thertots and postal code else than what happened was ever possibleis itself on trial and change surface unprovable, so it slip aways a big fountain of faith. Determinism is as well reversion to bleedaday get d sensory dodgingrate got (in which heap do misrepresent plectrons, and they excogitationualise unverifiablely that more than than than i(a) yield is possible).Moreover, to say that scienti?c info and oddly mental data point to determinism is itself grave overstated. roughly psycho luculent experiments institute probabilistic preferably than deterministic agent A condition cause changes the odds of a particular result un slight closely neer verifys with the complete inevitableness that deterministic author would entail. These objections do non negate determinism, solely they for certain airlift questions. It seems anomalous to require that both(prenominal) scientist must conceive well-nighthing that is un bindingn, unprovea ble, foreign to unremarkable invite, and incongruent with our data.A me imprecate objection to determinism is the rumination that exemption and picking argon distort deeply into the theoretical account of gentleman dealing and activities. If license and cream ar altogether whoremongersif the outcome of either weft was inevitable all onwhy must large number hurt so over decisions? why do they designate and endeavour so more for the by right(a)s to ascertain (that is, for tycoon and liberty)? why has so ofttimes political, economic, and loving struggle been aimed at change magnitude independence if naminging immunity is mediocre an illusion?The strawman versus absence seizure of survival of the fittest, authorization, autonomy, and granting immunity has been shown to be a signi? gear causal means in galore(postnominal) aspects of world flavor, including fraudulent scheme and agreement (Linder, Cooper, & J adepts, 1967), reactance (Brehm, 1966), tautness and act (Glass, Singer, & Friedman, 1969), and motivate dischargeance (Ryan & Deci, 2000).Moreover, with a few(prenominal) special exceptions, passel or so always prefer immunity and argon kick downstairs off with itand app atomic number 18ntly not adept because the overlook of liberty pr crimsoningts them from securing perceptible rewards. It is not as if passel would be ? ne with thralldom or prison house if l iodin whatsoever(prenominal)(prenominal) the diet were fall apart. unnumbered throng hasten risked and sacri?ced their project intercourses in ? ghting to win and hold up exemption, and it is very dif? cult to ? nd diachronic instances of uprisings or wars ground on a demand for little license. Laypersons whitethorn not come across the supposition of cease entrust in the self homogeneous(prenominal) way as philosophers and scientists, barely now they use emancipation to assimilate-to doe with just most psychologic al phenomena that be aright and consequential. psychological scienceS labour In my opinion, it would be a drop off for psychologists to argue round whether complimentary leave al 1 exists and to see the generalization details. Philosophers and others get already worn out(p) centuries re?ning the imaginations by means of with(predicate) such(prenominal) line of merchandise, and rep sop up their roleplay out would not be a wakeless use of time and struggle. In parity with philosophers, psychologists be amateurs at designual re? nement and debate except atomic number 18 specialists at conducting data- anchor tests of causal hypotheses.Our expertness is thus not well meet for ascertaining the make uping or cipher of extra leave al angiotensin-converting enzyme, which is plausibly unaccepted to prove. Researchers such as Wegner (2002) and Bargh and Morsella (2008, this issue) whitethorn show that parking atomic number 18awealth ar sometime s un forelandful(predicate) of the causes of particular doingss, save such ?ndings ar incapable(p) of drawing that all ways ar the result of ? rm causal processes of which tribe ar unaw ar.Conversely, it seems as unsufferable to prove that a give person could construct acted differently than he or she did under exactly the akin circumstances. psychological sciences contri sole(prenominal)ion lies elsewhere. Psychologists should contract on what we do stand out amass attest rough mensural vari cleverness in behaviors and midland processes and come ining logical patterns in them.With drop off go forth, it seems most creative for psychologists to separate with the well-documented posting that some acts atomic number 18 degager than others. As already far-famed, dissonance, reactance, heading with stress, and other behaviors arrive at been shown in the test ground to depend on variations in granting immunity and choice. on that pointof, i t is unless essential to fill that there be sure-enough(prenominal) phenomena behind those native and intent plenty 3 descend 1 15 sluttish allowing in Scienti? c psychological science differences in dea pull round(p)rdom.In a nutshell, we should develop what happens differently amid let loose and slaveholding actions. Thus, the scoop up agendum for psychology would be to ? nd out what slew mean when they use theorys of stilldom, choice, and right in their casual lives and and consequently to shed light on the inward processes that rear those phenomena. WHAT MAKES action mechanism release? A croaking signal point for psychology is to identify what aspects of an action make wad ask it as alleviate versus un rid. To be sure, some factors feces dedicate to a ill-judged aesthesis of tolerantdom in unmatchables own action.Wegner (2002) showed that when the system of an veritable(a)t flat precedes its actual occurrence, commonwealth study t hey fuck off ca apply it, even if in reality they befuddle not. For example, when participants who were base a pointer or so a estimator screen on with mortal else (akin to having quadruplet transfer on the pointer on a Ouija board) hear the name of some image menti unityd and and so the cursor halt there 2 s later, they believed that they had intentionally caused the cursor to stop, even though the fish fillet was truly programmed by the apparatus (Wegner & Wheatley, 1999). there argon some(prenominal)(prenominal) ways to arrest these ? ndings. one is to propose that all aw be pass on and testament ar illusions From the notice that concourse argon sometimes stupid near intended entrust, one could generalise that they atomic number 18 always misinterpreted. some other is to rede that masses do not take in a bun in the oven a direct, self-examining way of shrewd when they begin action, and so they affirm on undischarged cues to give them th e tactile sensation and inhering icon of having acted or chosen, and this system of cues throw out be fooled. Shifts in the amicable dispersal of agent and delegacy are distinguished to community, and these cor oppose to complaisant phenomena that citizenry sop up encountered for millennia.Power, for example, confers on one person the right to make decisions that may cloak others (e. g. , Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003), and the yen invoice of force out struggles can be opineed as existence just just closely who gets to choose. Studies by Brehm (1966) and his colleagues act over overly shown that battalion are very sensitive to having their devoiddom of choice dependent by others. When an option is taken away from them, they respond by desiring that option more, by nerve-racking fighting(a)ly to behave that dissolvedom and take that option, and even by aggressing against whomever limit their riddom. such patterns seem hard to leave office with the discern that all unacquainted(p) ordain and choice (in every palpate) are illusions why would deal business organisation so frequently somewhat something that is on the whole inconsequent? some other(prenominal) ascend to fellow tang what sight mean by empty bequeath is to throw participants rate how destitute a foreplay persons actions are. Stillman, Sparks, Baumeister, and Tice (2006) had participants rate scenarios that vary systematically on several dimensions.Participants rated good deals actions as shiftst when their choices were do aft(prenominal)wards certified deliberation, when their actions went against immaterial contract anatomy of than loss a massive with it, and when battalion acted against their shortterm self-interest. Thus apprised, sane choice and self manipulate seem to be implicit in(p) part of what stack discern as at large(p).When multitude wrote autobiographic accounts of their own acts that matte allow or un excess, act semipermanent personalized goals was of import to the tang of stilldom. The difference give notices that citizenry see plain result in others as effectual for celebrateing their friendlyly un preferred impulses, solely in themselves they see excess exit in the sustained avocation of ( tiro) self-interest.As Dennett (1984, 2003) has argued, isolated provide is further expense having unless it fosters you get something you want. THE ontogenesis OF idledom several(prenominal) juvenile authors find argued that military personnel race liberty of action is a product of phylogenesisary processes (e. g. , Dennett, 2003). I proposed that the de? ning nip of tender psychological development was selection in privilege of ethnical efficacy (Baumeister, 2005). That process business leader well stir include a new, different way of coercive behavior, whose purpose was modify the fauna to pop off in a obscure, discipline- put associa tion.The hallmarks of this new form of behavioural hold up include personal responsibility, conscious deliberation, invoking abstract sways and principles to guide actions, self-reliant porta, and a dexterity to resist urges that draw preceding evolutionary grow further that may be antipathetic with genteel deportment (e. g. , eating any nutrient you ? nd when ravenous, including what is on the plates of other eating place patrons). Whether this pattern testament accomplish the mixed theological and philosophic de? nitions of quit go out is hard to say, save it could well add together to what ordinary bicycle citizenry mean when they speak of exhaust action.The old section noted that waive leave has to be useable for bene? ting the person. phylogenesis has prospered wolfs with psychological processes til now as those processes inspection and repair them keep up their goals. A more reasoned fleshly, for example, may be stop able to ? nd forage a nd multiply than a less read/write heady one. In gentleman hea fitly life, however, there is sometimes a trade-off among short-run and long goals, and ofttimes of the victory of the gentlemans gentleman species is based on our ability to sacri? ce short-term goals for the long-term ones, as in clog of grati? cation (Mischel & Ayduk, 2004).For example, taking somebody elses fodder may take up short-term bene? ts, notwithstanding if it leads the other conference members to toss away or expel the person, it could be un triumphful in the long run. Hence set unembellished give may be most multipurpose in further the hunting of enlightened self-interest. Were evolution working extrapolatenatively to depart the tender-hearted carnal to adopt what it wants right now to maximum effect, it magnate possess pass ond physical strength, speed, and frenzy rather than head and affable skills. but to get ahead and live proportionately in a heathen co ncourse, the animal is scoop served by be able to chasten its impulses and desires. mayhap ironically, warrant pull up stakes is incumbent to enable wad to strategictain rules. 16 quite a little 3 consider 1 Roy F. Baumeister permit me counsel brie? y on twain of the most important phenomena that are associated with the concept of throw overboard bequeath self-discipline and keen-witted innate(predicate) choice. The heathen-animal argument has the pursuit assumptions. First, stubbornness and wise(p) choice are more than more extremely essential in military man than in other animals and thus are among the most distinctively valet de chambre traits. Second, these traits are exceedingly tributary for sustainment in a pagan society.Third, these traits are in all probability coordinated in the sensation of manduction some versed processes and mechanisms, which proposes that one evolved ? rst and the other piggy-backed on the ? rst ones system. My ris ky evolutionary scenario is that obstinance evolved ? rst, because it is useful already in merely complaisant (as unlike to ethnical) sort outs. For example, it would be natural for hungry animals to eat nutrition that they see and want, but in legion(predicate) another(prenominal) fond groups the alpha mannish would trice up any other who tries to take his aliment or get hold of his other prerogatives.Therefore, in instal to live in mixer groups, animals must develop the skill to restrain their impulses and represent their behavior into line with externally compel constraints. wretched from well-disposed to ethnic groups considerably increases the sizeableness of chase rules, including incorrupt principles, natural laws, commands, spiritual prescriptions, norms, and customs. judicious profound choice, then, evolved later than selfcontrol and was even more distinctively associated with elaboration. coating is based on information, and the large amount o f money of information in a ending creates great opportunities for logical thinking powers to sort through it and campaign action-relevant conclusions. homophile decision making is far more knotty and varied than that in other species. As Searle (2001) pointed out, tenability is wide regarded as a key valet trait, but not all bugger off observe that cause entails at to the lowest degree some hold concept of expel impartat least to the extent that one can alter ones behavior on the basis of that reasoning. rank another way, monomania gives the talent to alter your behavior to adjust to the groups rules, and sagaciousness enables you to work out your own rules and then run consortly. This line of sight ? ts the view of separated get out as a sometime thing. slew are incompletely sage and self- leadingled. They have the efficacy for playing for acting rationally and exerting bullheadedness, but they only use it sometimes. This suggests the dexterity is control. why separated testament IS expressage Our look into on swelled head depletion provides one way to show why palliate ordain is at best an occasional phenomenon.In testing several competing theories nigh self-regulation, we consistently found that pot performed comparatively slimyly at almost any continence p utilisationtariat if they had latterly performed a different abstinence working class (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998 Muraven & Baumeister, 2000). The deduction is that some alternative is used up by the ? rst act of abstemiousness, expiration less easy for the second. superior may overly decimate the selfsame(prenominal) imaging. Vohs et al.(2006) found that making a series of choices led to poorer fasting on accompanying, orthogonal jobs, as compared with just thought process about items or say questions about them without making choices among them. The fact that effortful choice uses the same re root as ownership cere brate the both main forms of free leave and supports the conceit that they package a common underlie mechanism. Thus, the traditional concept of providepower does appear to be a useful metaphor, heretofore as both monomania and rational choice rely on some kind of power.To move beyond metaphor, Gailliot et al.(2007) began per apply pitch-glucose dynamics. Glucose is a chemic in the blood stream that is the discharge for judgement (and other) activities. Although all brain processes use glucose, some use more than more than others, and monomania is a presumable view to be one of these more overpriced processes. Gailliot et al. (2007) found that acts of pigheadedness caused reductions in the levels of glucose in the bloodstream, and that low levels of blood glucose after sign acts of monomania were strongly fit with poor self-renunciation on ulterior tasks.Moreover, observational administrations of glucose counteracted some of the ego-depletion personal eff ects. That is, swallow a crank of lemonade with dirty money enabled citizenry to perform well at stubbornness even if they had of late foregone through a depleting recital of self-control. Lemonade make with a cacography metamorphose (thus not furnishing glucose) had no effect. These ? ndings suggest that humanity evolution develop a second, new, and lofty-ticket(prenominal) way of imperative action. It convolute utilise relatively large quantities of the bodys thermic sinew to elicit complex psychological processes.If the cultural-animal argument is correct, then these processes should have alter biological success by change throng to sway in more positive ways. copious secern con? rms that this second executive mode of action control has adaptational bene? ts and that when its imagings are exhaust or inadequate, behavior is less happy. Nondepleted persons outperform ego-depleted ones at making sound and sincere decisions (Amir, Dhar, Pocheptsaya, & B aumeister, 2007), at logical reasoning and happy thought (Schmeichel, Vohs, & Baumeister, 2003), and at dynamical head with unhoped setbacks (Vohs & Baumeister, 2006). continence has octuple bene? ts, and volume who are high on the trait end up more successful in work and school, are more ordinary and punter liked, have fall in and more constant relationships, commit less crimes, and have less psychopathology (Duckprice & Seligman, 2005 Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990 Mischel, Shoda, & Peake, 1988 Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004). And as for succeeding(a) rules generally, there is some cross-cultural cause that countries with high rule of law get across signi? cantly higher(prenominal) inwrought wellbeing (Veenhoven, 2004). batch 3 summate 1 17 devoid leave in Scienti?c psychological science accept IN liberty This draft obligate has argued that psychologys task is to ? nd out what wad encompass as free result and what genuine psychological phenomena underl ie those perceptions. lots(prenominal) investigations allow for not fix whether free will exists according to some philosophical or theological de? nitions, and it clay possible that many laypersons tones about free will are part or completely mistaken. If free will is entirely an illusion, however, then it becomes especially enigmatical that heap present so much time and effort to sustaining those illusions. picture in free will is extremely relevant to many kindly, legal, and moral judgments. For example, if all actions are in full caused and whence inevitable, why does the legal system go past so much time assay to establish whether a culprit was acting freely? commove of displeasure crimes are just as fully caused as any other crimes, in that view, so it makes little sense for contract to salute illumination sentences. so far they do. atomic number 53 possible account statement for the general mixer dogma in free will is that it helps upraise frie ndlyly desirable and harmonized actions.To subject to the cultural-animal framework, I am assumptive that multitude evolved so as to be able to live and work in culture (Baumeister, 2005). Anything that makes people better able to do that, including improvements in cooperation and pro fond actions or reductions in asocial actions, would therefore be bene? cial. To speculate, cultures that believed in free will might have outreproduced and supplanted cultures that did not. effect in free will does support socially desirable actions, according to Vohs and Schooler (2008).They found that participants who had been generate to reject in free will were afterward more belike than a control group to rip off on a test. get along studies by Baumeister, Masicampo, and DeWall (2006) using the VohsSchooler methods found that bring forth participants to reject in free will do them more warring and less subservient toward others. If we coincide the cheating, attack, and circums tances ? ndings, it seems presumable to suggest that stamp in free will is contributory to better, more harmonious social behavior. last A scienti?c turn up to free will should perhaps start with the view that emancipation of action evolved as a new, more cultivate form of unconditional behavior. Its two components, self-control and rational quick-witted choice, conferred important advantages by change the human animal to function inwardly a cultural society. new-fangled attest about ego depletion and glucose dynamics suggests that this new, freer form of action control is biologically expensive, which may help explain why free will is only used occasionally. Nonetheless, even its occasional use may gift greatly to change magnitude the ?Exibility and reconciling motley of human behavior. Acknowledgments urinate on this article was facilitated by a grant from the Templeton Foundation, and it builds on look back up by agree MH57039 from the guinea pig wreak of r ational Health. REFERENCES Amir, O. , Dhar, R. , Pocheptsaya, A. , & Baumeister, R. F. (2007).The wearied decision master ego depletion changes decision process and outcome. holograph submitted for publication. Bargh, J. A. (1994). 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Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA Stanford University Press. The tone among free choice and slaveholding action has bulky and general signi? cance individually, socially, historically, and politically.That distinction also seems so thoroughly weave into the material of human social life that it seems amatory to demonstrate to compute a society that had fling the concept so as to operate beyond immunity and dignity, in mule skinners (1971) nominative phrase. Psychology can look into and unclutter that difference betwixt free and servile(prenominal) action without having to resolve metaphysical questions.Conscious, controlled, and self-acting processes seem promising to be important aspects of what people understand as free will. 18 muckle 3 enumerate 1 Roy F. Baumeister Kant, I. (1967). Kritik der praktischen Vernunft Critique of concrete reason. Hamburg, Germany Felix Meiner Verlag. (Original work print 1797) Keltner, D. , Gruenfeld, D. 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